شرح يونت 11
The angle of representation
هذا الفصل يتحدث عن الوسائل النحوية التي تؤثر على طرق استخداماتنا للغة لتمثيل الحياة من حولنا. إذا تنوع الأساليب الكتابية عائد لمنظور معين نريد إبرازه أو إغفاله.
Experiential meanings linked to different representations and thus different understandings of the world of human experience.
How experiential meanings can be emphasised or avoided؟
Certain meanings have more impact than others because of the way the text is constructed \\\\\what we should focus on.
هنا يتابع نقاش: field
تم شرح جزئه الأول في unit 8
Field متعلق بالمعنى والموضوع (التجربة)
ونحن على علم بأن clause هي unit of meaning
وأن وظيفتها هي نقل التجربة التي نتعايش معها في عالمنا.
A key function of clause is to represent the phenomena of our experience in terms of process, participant and circumstance.
اذا هؤلاء الثلاثة المكونون لـ clause ونوعيتها هي أيضا
هم من يؤثرون على كيفية نقل تجاربنا من العالم وتحديد والتأثير على
Angle of representation
The experiential constituents relating to the aspect of situation known as field:
· Participants– (noun phrases) acting to identify entities in some experiential world.
· Processes– (verb phrases) acting to identify happenings and states of affairs in some experiential world.
· Circumstances– (adverbial phrases or prepositional phrases) acting to provide some context for the participants and processes.
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(Connection in the world)
بما أن الكلوز تنقل لنا التجربة الواقعة في العالم فإنه لابد من وجود علاقة بين العالم وبين التجربة وبين المشاركين فيها.
لهذا يوجد طريقتين:
1) Transitive + intransitive clause
Transitive clause= two-participant clause where is an interaction between the participants.
أي أن هنالك تفاعل وعلاقة وتأثير ما بين المشاركين وهي لا تكون إلا في حالات من processes
Material process + mental process + verbal process
أما : relational process
فلا تتحقق فيها هذه العلاقة.
- Transitives indicate that one participant acts upon, targets or interacts with a second participant in some way.
- This only applies to material,mental and verbal processes.
Material process (John kicked the ball)
Mental process(John watched the play)
Verbal process(John told a story)
*** There is interaction between participants.
Relational process(John is happy)
*** No interaction between happy and John.
+
(One-participant clauses = intransitive)
There can be no ‘transition’ from one participant to another.
***Intransitive structures avoid making explicit connections between entities in the world, and thus we do not see who or what is responsible for the event.
اذا هنا نجد انه في النوع الآخر لا وجود لأي علاقة بين شيء وشيء لا نعلم من تسبب بالحدث ولا نعلم بالضبط لماذا حدث
e.g.: Twelve people died in a fire.
To sum up:
· Experiential meaning in clauses may involve connections being made between participants in the world; or such connections may be deliberately avoided.
· Choices of transitive or intransitive structure enable the writer or speaker to place emphasis on these connections in text or to avoid them in text.
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*** Intransitives can enable the writer to avoid making a direct connection between entities in the world.
*** The actor participant is removed because different grammatical construction has allowed the actor to be removed.
اذا transitive
هناك علاقة بين العالم ومكوناته
أما intransitive فيتجنب حدوث مثل هذه العلاقة
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2) Passivation (long + short passivation)
المجهول ونوعيه
There are two types of passives: long passives and short passives.
- A long passive is where two participants are present as in:
The text was written by me.
[LONG PASSIVE]
Note that: the second participant is signalled with by.
طويل لأنه actor موجود ولكن ليس participant الاول ويسبقه by
-
A short passive is one where the second participant in the active voice is not included, as in:
The text is written.
[SHORT PASSIVE]
Short passives = the actor is not included:
The cakes are being cooked.
· Short passivisation enables the removal of actors, and hence is another way of avoiding representing connections in the world.
اذا المبني للمجهول القصير يساعد في تجنب وجود علاقة بين العالم ومكوناته او الاشياء الواقعة فيه لانه اخفى المتسبب
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من الوسائل الأخرى المنظمة للنص للتركيز او للتجنب:
1- The principle of end-weight
Long and complex elements prefer to be placed at the end of a clause and thus after the main verb, so as to make understanding of the sentence easier.
وتعني أن العناصر الطويلة والمعقدة في النص يفضل أن تدرج في النهاية بعد الفعل الأساسي لتسهل الفهم.
‘top-heavy’: it places a heavy burden on the reader, who has to keep a lot of information in short-term memory before reaching the main verb.
لأن وجود المعلومات الكثيرة في بداية النص يعرقل عملية فهم النص عند القارئ
2- The information flow principle
Given to New:
Given information is related to previous information, and new information is taken up in what follows in the text.
It contributes to the cohesion of the text.
وهنا يقصد أنه علينا أن نضع في أول النص معلومات معطاة ثم نبدأ ذكر المعلومات الحديثة.
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مهم فهم هذه العلاقة:
Actor process goal
In passive voice?
Goal process actor
The goal is thematised
يعني صار theme
بدلا عن actor
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من خلال معرفتنا وفهمنا بـ
Transitivity + passivasation
*** Transitives and long passives are similar in that they both depict the process as involving two participants (an actor and a goal) but they are significantly different in other important aspects with respect to their communicative functionality and effect.
***They are different in terms of the informational emphases and the focusing they provide.
هنا القائم بالحدث يكون موجود في الحالتين
الفرق هو أن التركيز المراد به من الجملة تغير:
Transitives
يكون القائم بالحدث موجود في البداية
long passives
فلا يكون القائم بالحدث في بداية النص وإنما في نهايتة فقلص دوره
*** Passivisation enables the object of an active sentence to be thematised.
أمر آخر ملاحظ في LONG PASSIVE
There is another significant aspect of the grammar of the long passive.
نلاحظ من خلال المثالين التالين
E.G: King Alfred (actor – NOUN PHRASE) cooked (process) the cakes (goal) = transitive
E.G: The cakes (goal) were cooked (process) by King Alfred (actor – PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE) = long passive
·
In the transitive, the actor is expressed by means of just a noun phrase.
هنا نجد أن actor معبر عنه من خلال noun phrase يعني : participant
·
In the long passive the actor is expressed by a prepositional phrase beginning with by. In this case the actor role is expressed via the structure by + noun phrase (by King Alfred).
هنا نجد أن actor معبر عنه من خلال prepositional phrase يعني : circumstance
·
- In long passive: The actor role is being realised by a structure – a prepositional phrase – which elsewhere is associated with circumstances and not with participants.
- Circumstances are typically more marginal or peripheral to the grammar of the clause. They add background information which is not required for a meaningful or grammatical utterance.
وهذا ينبهنا أن Circumstances هي مجرد أشياء إضافية وليست مهمة ويمكن حذفها من النص وهنا فإنه تم تقليص دور الفاعل أو القائم بالتجربة وبالتالي تغيرت زاوية رؤيتنا للعالم
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بإختلاف أنوع processes فإنparticipant يختلف أيضا
TYPES OF PARTICIPANT
1) Material process: participant = actor \ goal (+beneficiary)
e.g:
Jerry took the money
Actor-material process-goal
Jerry gave some book to John
Actor-material process-goal-beneficiary
2) Mental processes: participant=experiencer\experience
e.g:
Her dancing amazed me.
experience mental process experiencer
3) verbal processes: participant= sayer \ verbiage (+receiver):
They said yes.
sayer verbal process verbiage
They told him a story.
sayer verbal process receiver verbiage
4) Relational processes: participant=token\value:
Julia Roberts is a beautiful woman.
token relational process value
There is no interaction or transition between participants in relational processes
This type of analysis Halliday calls a transitivity analysis– analysing clauses to find out what the type of process is and what the types of participants are.
Table P. 169
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Emphasizing Nature through Grammar
How nature is constructed through grammar?
Goatly's essay endorses an ecological perspective that human technology domination is resulting in potentially serious implications for the planet. He contends that the technological world-view is often reflected in transitive clauses.
- Nature = inactive
- Marginalizing in circumstance
- Powerless
غوتلي ناقش المنظور البيئي وكيف أن التكنولوجيا البشرية بدأت تؤثر على الكوكب. ودائما ما يتم التعبير عن هذه الرؤية من خلال : transitive clauses فيظهر لنا أن العنصر الفعال هو دوما الانسان الذي يؤثر على الطبيعة التي صورت على أنها شيء خامل غير فعال مهمل و قليل الحيلة.
· Goatly argues instead that grammatical representation should reflect an ecological world-view where humans and nature are interrelated.
· Goatly suggests in which technological world-view representations can be grammatically modified in order to emphasise the interrelatedness of humans and Nature.
ويرى أنه لإظهار النزعة البيئية التي تعطي الأهمية للبيئة علينا أن نغير المنظور الذي نرى العالم به من مؤثر ومتأثر من خلال اللغة وتبديل الأدوار.
Using grammar to sensitise the reader towards an ecological perspective
1 Activating a location circumstance as actor (material process)
Instead of marginalising the environmentby referring to it in a location circumstance, it can be turn into a subject where it is a theme and so receives more emphasis.
e.g:
Fishermen caught 100,000 tons of fish in the North Sea.
actor material process goal circumstance
by transforming the location circumstance into an thematised actor, we can produce a sentence that sensitises the reader towards an ecological perspective:
The North Sea used to provide 100,000 tons of fish.
Actor(theme) material process goal
في material process بدلا من أن أضع العنصر الطبيعي كهامش في النهاية أجعله هو theme المثر في البداية
To emphasise that it is Nature which provides resources for humans, a
recipient or beneficiary participant type could be added, i.e. us human beings in:
The North Sea used to provide us with 100,000 tons of fish per year.
ولإضفاء أهمية إضافية للطبيعة نستطيع إضافة العنصر البشري (كمشترك في هذه التجربة) على أنه المستفيد.
Beneficiary
2 Activation of experiences (mantel process)
By reconstruct experiences in mental-process clauses as though they were actors in material processes. For example:
I saw the river.
experiencer mental process experience
The river arrested my gaze.
actor material process goal
في mental process أحول experiences إلى actors كما في material process : أي نحول نوعية الجملة من خلال الفعل وبالتالي يتغير دور participants
*****Experiences can also be thematised with intransitive structures:
I saw the river=======> The river came into view.
أيضا بالإمكان أن نجعل الجملة intransitive من خلال أخذ experience
وجعلها في المقدمة كـ theme
3 Activation of tokens (relational process)
Relational processes can be transformed into material ones so that instead of Nature being static, it is seen as active. For example:
Five trees are in the valley.
token relational process value
Five trees stand in the valley.
actor material process circumstance
في relational process أيضا نقوم بتحويلها إلى material process :
وبدلا من أن تكون الطبيعة خاملة تكون فعالة
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QUESTION: Goatly mentions ergative verbs. Why does he favour ergative verbs for representing Nature? Why might ergative verbs be suited to transforming a sentence that reflects a technological world-view into one that reflects an ecological one?
For Goatly, ergative verbs (such as ring, spin, sweep) are used to reflect a natural landscape possessing its own energy irrespective of human beings. How do ergative verbs manage this? To appreciate how they are able to do this, consider the following:
عشان نفهم معنى ergative verbs نلاحظ هالمثالين:
Ian drinks.
subject [intransitive]
Ian drinks the water.
subject [transitive] object
هنا الفعل استخدم بالحالتين ولكن الفاعل هو HUMAN
ولا يمكن أن نقول:
THE WATER DRINKS
هنا نشعر أنه بحاجة إلى فاعل ما
ولكن في المثال التالي:
Ian rang.
subject [intransitive]
Ian rang the bell.
subject [transitive]object
The bell rang.
subject [intransitive]
نلاحظ أنه بالامكان حذف الفاعل الاصلي وبالامكان ان يكون BELL هو الفاعل للجملة
دون وجود فاعل HUMAN
والافعال التي تتوفر لها هذه الخاصية هي ما نسميها : ergative verbs
التي تمكن من اعطاء اهمية للطبيعة دون وجود عنصر بشري
· Ring is a different kind of verb all together. While, like drink, it can be used intransitively with a human subject and transitively with a human subject, the object the bell in the transitive structure can be used as the subject of ring also.
·
Verbs that allow this are known as ergative verbs. When used intransitively, they do not require human participants.
***Because of this we can focus especially on Nature by making it a subject theme.
_____________
Acivity
3
6
10
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